Virti-Cue Social Modeling Application: Production PaperJeannette Jackson, Vanita Gupta, Robin Halbert, Chris Blais
The purpose of this paper is to describe the Production Phase of the Virti-Cue Social Modeling Application. The target audience of the application is children with Asperger’s Syndrome and their parents and/or caregivers. Using Virti-Cue, parents and/or caregivers are able to create realistic social stories using still images or video to provide appropriate models for their children’s developing social skills. The purpose of the Production Phase is to develop a learning application with media elements about which we will make explicit claims regarding the intended users, the learning needs of users, how the software meets those learning needs, including the choice of media, structure, and interface, what should be learned from the software, and how that learning will be assessed. Background To begin this phase of our development, information gathered from our Presentation Design usability testing was analyzed and used to inform our Production decisions. In feedback from our usability testing, users indicated uncertainty regarding labels on some of the frequently used buttons in the application. Users also suggested that we create a tutorial to assist first-time users. To help clarify this uncertainty regarding button names/functions and to assist first-time users, we plan to create a series of ‘how to tutorials’ that ‘walk users through key processes’ in 2 minutes or less. Users will be able to access the tutorials that we are developing through the help button or on Virti-Cue’s proposed website that will accompany our product. For the purpose of our production task, we will focus on an aspect in a key process in the application: creating a new story and adding pictures. Short tutorials will be created for each phase of the application to support the learning needs of our users. In the following sections, the specific ways in which our design decisions meet the needs of our intended users will be discussed. In order to develop the best design for our tutorial, we will engage in both a modified parallel and iterative design.
Design Decisions
Animation
Having researched a number of different tutorial formats, we have decided to proceed with a stop-action animated tutorial using a combination of voice-overs/sound and text (is this still stop action??). The rationale for creating an animated tutorial is in part based on the fact that at this time we do not have a functional product with which to record a video. In addition, research has demonstrated that animations can be an effective way to deliver instruction (Lowe, 2004, paragraph 2) and a short animated video lends itself well to being displayed on either computers or handheld devices, at the point of need.
As noted by Lowe (2004), animations appear to “fulfill an ‘affective’ function, that is, to attract attention, engage the learner, and sustain motivation” (Lowe, 2004, paragraph 3). Other advocates of animation believe it is beneficial for information processing by making difficult content easier to understand and by depicting dynamics explicitly (Lowe, 2004). Benefits of animation have also been claimed to include the reduction of extraneous processing because “animation requires less effort to create mental pictorial presentations, and computer control requires less effort to make choices during learning” (Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, & Campbell, 2005, p. 257). Proponents of animation also argue that processing animations places a lower cognitive load on learners as learners do not have to “engage in cognitive processing” to animate the graphics as the computer does it for them (Mayer, et al., 2005)
Nevertheless, in spite of the oft cited educational benefits of animation, research has failed to demonstrate conclusively that the use of animation is more effective than the use of equivalent static graphics (Ayres, Kalyuga, Marcus, & Sweller, 2005; Ayres & Paas, 2007; Mayer, et al., 2005). Ayres et al. (2005) identify two “critical characteristics” that may serve to explain the apparent lack of effectiveness of animations: 1) information is transitory, and 2) animations consist of a series of successive elements – with static graphics more time can be made available to transfer the information. Considering these limitations, Ayres et al. (2005) suggest a number of conditions under which animations may serve to be effective. For example, employing strategies that serve to lower extraneous cognitive load, such as ensuring users have sufficient prior knowledge, thus reducing demands on working memory caused by the transitory nature of animations. Another suggestion is ‘tracing’, which entails leaving information on the screen for a longer period of time and also serves to counteract the transitory nature. A final suggestion that has applicability to our product is building in learner control such that learners are able to control the pace by pausing, reviewing, or fast forwarding the tutorial, again reducing working memory loads.
Given the inconclusive evidence regarding the efficacy of animations as compared to graphical/textual explanations in learning applications, we will develop parallel designs to determine which format best meets the needs of our learners for our particular product: an animated format with combinations of voice/text, or a static graphical/textual format. In order to create an effective animation, we will employ the suggestions offered by Ayres et al. (2005) and will also strive to construct the animation in such a way as to tap the positive features of static illustrations. Factors such as user control of the pace and guiding users to attend to key steps in the process (Mayer, et al., 2005) will be employed.
According to Lowe (2004), two problems may be associated with dynamic explanations -- that of overwhelming users, and that of underwhelming users.Users can be overwhelmed and unable to keep pace with the delivery if animations present complex information very rapidly. Conversely, users can be underwhelmed if animations are insufficiently engaging and ineffective in gaining and sustaining user attention and stimulating relevant cognitive processes for learning (Lowe, 2004). The intent of our tutorial then is to neither overwhelm nor underwhelm our users, but to achieve what Norman (2011) identifies as an appropriate level of complexity. COMMENTS/SUGGESTIONS/CHANGES? HAVE AT 'ER! :-)
Voice and Text
Research on text/voice/combination:- -( Vanita). To promote effective learning, we will include narration in our tutorials. As noted by Bishop & Cates (2001), "sounds may gain and focus learner attention, reduce distracting stimuli, and make learning more engaging" (p. 5). Sounds may also "help learners condense, elaborate on, and organize details, highlighting interconnections among new pieces of information and making connections to preexisting knowledge" (Bishop & Cates, 2001, p. 5?).
We also considered including a combination of voice-overs/sound and text. Research on the use of voice or text or combined voice and text has revealed some interesting advantages and disadvantages. Chalfonte et al. (1991) suggest "voice can be more `expressive' than text, placing less cognitive demand on the communicator/user and allowing more attention to be devoted to the content of the message" (p. ??). (I'm not certain the previous sentence fits - is this talking about the person who is doing the narration - i.e. the communicator? shouldn't we be referring to the 'user'?) Another advantage of using speech in our interface is its universality; almost everyone understands spoken language as opposed to the varied reading abilities. However, one notable disadvantage is that voice delivers information at a slower rate than text, which can be scanned or reviewed. As Nielsen (1995) points out, “a special consideration for video (and spoken audio) is that any narration may lead to difficulty for international users as well as for users with a hearing disability.” He adds, “spoken words are sometimes harder to understand, especially if the speaker is sloppy, has a dialect, speaks over a distracting soundtrack, or simply speaks very fast … The classic solution to these problems is to use subtitles but subtitles require special attention on the web."
In addition, further research on the combination of text and speech suggested a dual modality output presentation, rather than a single modality, to improve user comprehension and retention (Schwartz, 2003). “In contrast to print and audio comparisons, which generally reveal no advantage for dual over single presentations, studies show that adding pictures to print or audio generally increases learning" (Nugent, 1992, p. 164). Another study by Sipior and Garruty (1992) found that presentations with a mix of audio and visual components improved receptive attributes such as perception, attention, comprehension, and retention. “Flexibility is extremely important to system use since different users may require different degrees of support” (Sipior & Garruty, p. 519).
Color and Graphics
“If we want people to adopt a new behaviour, it is therefore important that instructions are not only semantically clear and easy to follow, but also visually easy to read – or else the behaviour may seem unduly demanding” (Song, H. & Schwarz, N., 2008). The use of visuals should facilitate learning rather than distract from it hence visual clarity is a guiding principle in our tutorial design. Our goal is to provide an effortless experience through minimizing the use of, and simplifying, both visuals and text so that our choices aid in the memory process whilst adding a level of enjoyment. “Communicators and educators … well advised to present information in a form that facilitates easy processing: if it’s easy to read, it seems easy to do, pretty, good, and true “ (Song, H. & Schwarz, N., 2008). In general, people prefer familiar images to highly unusual examples, as they are easier to process. We have, therefore, used similar human-like figures throughout in the design of the Virti-Cue product, in testing by users, and in the current development of tutorial models. This consistency will help reduce distraction from the main learning goals and aid with comprehension. (Malamed, C., 2011) We chose to use simplified and iconic graphics in order to reduce cognitive load, as in, less mental energy will be spent on processing the visuals and more toward acting on recognition of their inherent meaning. As Soloman states, “from an instructional perspective, information contained in instructional material must first be processed by working memory….Cognitive load theory is concerned with techniques for reducing working memory load in order to facilitate the changes in long term memory.” (http://tip.psychology.org/sweller.html) In addition, our chosen graphics and icons possess elements that will ease transfer, or enable deciphering, across various cultures and languages. We have consciously paid attention to choosing the “right metaphors” to simplify the use of the tutorial (http://www.iconfinder.com/blog) and although we have attempted to keep all elements in the tutorial looking as if they belong together, we have added some visual variety as our research also supports the idea of sometimes grabbing p[eople’s attention. (Skaalid, 1999)
Careful consideration has gone into the color selections made in our tutorial. In part, we wanted the tutorial to accurately reflect the colors in the actual application. Bearing in mind that our product is intended to assist children with Asperger’s Syndrome learn appropriate social behaviors, we wanted to ensure that the colors chosen would facilitate learning and not serve as a distraction. In all probability, it will be the parents or caregivers of these children who utilize the tutorials. Nevertheless, we understand that the children will often be close by and the utilization of distracting colors could serve as an obstacle to uninterrupted viewing.
With these factors in mind, we limited the number of colors in the tutorial and used the color red (circle cursor with highlighted centre to indicate 'clicking') to focus user attention on relevant cues (Skaalid, 1999). The color scheme is consistent throughout (Skaalid), with the same colors used for buttons and backgrounds. We chose the black background to simulate the background of handheld devices on which the application will be utilized, such as on iphones.
Segment Length
One of our objectives in developing a video tutorial for Virti-Cue is to create a learning experience that is meaningful and allows for ease of use. To this end, our first tutorial video stands as an episode in relation to a larger body of work. The episodic nature of these videos raises questions of episode length. To effectively sustain attention and produce intended results, we must gain a better understanding of how memory works. Mayes & Roberts (2001) state that "only a tiny fraction of experienced episodes are put into long-term memory storage and, even with those that are, only a small proportion of the experienced episode is later retrievable" (p. 1398). They stress the importance of providing visual information to users, as “in episodes experienced by humans, visual information is usually most salient" (Mayes & Roberts, p. 1396).
The use of visuals is an important aspect of our tutorial design, however, the question of the optimal length of each episode remains unanswered. Nielsen (2005) argues that "the main guideline for producing website video is to keep it short. Typically, Web videos should be less than a minute long." Google Sketchup (http://sketchup.google.com/training/videos/new_to_gsu.html) offers a series of instructional videos varying between one and eight minutes in length. Similarly, Adobe (http://tv.adobe.com/show/learn-acrobat-9/) provides video tutorial support for their product lines with lengths akin to Sketchup. These examples have us questioning whether the likes of Google and Adobe have got it wrong or whether there are additional factors contributing to the success of a video tutorial.
Czerwinski & Horvitz (2002) describe how “new instruction updating depends on forgetting old instructions” and “a user will operate optimally if she allows those instructions to slowly decay from memory” (p. 232). If we provide too much information at once, we will not allow Virti-Cue users enough time to “let a previous task item fade from memory” (Czerwinski & Horvitz, p. 233). Given these constraints on memory, we question whether the effectiveness of a tutorial is as much about length as it is about the amount of information required to perform a task. As we develop these video-based resources, we consider that “a user cannot attend to a future behaviour if the previous task is still requiring attentional resources in short-term memory” (Czerwinski & Horvitz, p. 233). Our goal, therefore, is to create video tutorials attending to both brevity and the amount and manner of information presented in each episode.
Assessment of Learning
How will we determine if our learning application has met the needs of our learners? In order to assess the efficacy of ...
References
Ayres, P., Kalyuga, S., Marcus, N., & Sweller, J. (2005). The conditions under which instructional animations may be effective. Paper presented at an International Workshop and Mini-conference, Open University of the Netherlands: Heerlen, The Netherlands. Retrieved from www.ou.nl/Docs/Expertise/OTEC/Nieuws/icleps%20conferentie/Ayres.doc Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2007). Making instructional animations more effective: A cognitive load approach. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 695-700. doi: 10.1002/acp.1343 Bishop, M. J., & Cates, W. (2001). Theoretical foundations for sound's use in multimedia instruction to enhance learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(3), 5-22. Chalfonte, B. L., Fish, R. S., & Kraut, R. E. (1991). Expressive richness: A comparison of speech and text as media for revision. In Proceedings of CHI '92, 21-26. ACM.
Czerwinski, M., & Horvitz, E. (2002). An investigation of memory for daily computing events. In Xristine Faulkner, Janet Finlay, & Françoise Détienne (Eds.). People and computersXVI – memorable yet invisible:Proceedings of HCI 2002 (pp. 229-245). London, ENG: Springer-Verlag.
Lowe, R.K. (2004). Animation and learning: Value for money? In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. Jonas-Dwyer & R. Phillips (Eds), Beyond the comfort zone: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 558-561). Perth, 5-8 December. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/procs/lowe-r.html Mayer, R., Hegarty, M., Mayer, S., & Campbell, J. (2005). When static media promote active learning: Annotated illustrations versus narrated animations in multimedia instruction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(4), 256-265. Retrieved from http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/356/1413/1395.full.pdf+html
Mayes, A. R., & Roberts, N. (2001). Theories of episodic memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Bilogical Sciences, 356, 1395-1408. doi 10.1098/rstb.2001.0941 Nielsen, J. (1995). Guidelines for multimedia. Jakob Nielsen's alertbox for December 1995. Retrieved from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9512.html
Norman, D. (2011). Living with complexity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Nugent, G. (1982). Pictures audio and print: Symbolic representation and effect on learning. Educational Comm. Tech. J. 30, 3, 163-174. Schwartz, N. (2003). The Impact of Animation and Sound Effects on Attention and Memory Processes. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-5. doi:ica_proceeding_12242.PDF Sipior, J.C.& Garrity, E.J., (1992). Merging expert systems with multimedia technology’ Database (Winter) 45-49. Skaalid, B. (1999). Web design for instruction: Color. Retrieved from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/page/scrndsgn/color.htm
The purpose of this paper is to describe the Production Phase of the Virti-Cue Social Modeling Application. The target audience of the application is children with Asperger’s Syndrome and their parents and/or caregivers. Using Virti-Cue, parents and/or caregivers are able to create realistic social stories using still images or video to provide appropriate models for their children’s developing social skills. The purpose of the Production Phase is to develop a learning application with media elements about which we will make explicit claims regarding the intended users, the learning needs of users, how the software meets those learning needs, including the choice of media, structure, and interface, what should be learned from the software, and how that learning will be assessed.
Background
To begin this phase of our development, information gathered from our Presentation Design usability testing was analyzed and used to inform our Production decisions. In feedback from our usability testing, users indicated uncertainty regarding labels on some of the frequently used buttons in the application. Users also suggested that we create a tutorial to assist first-time users. To help clarify this uncertainty regarding button names/functions and to assist first-time users, we plan to create a series of ‘how to tutorials’ that ‘walk users through key processes’ in 2 minutes or less. Users will be able to access the tutorials that we are developing through the help button or on Virti-Cue’s proposed website that will accompany our product. For the purpose of our production task, we will focus on an aspect in a key process in the application: creating a new story and adding pictures. Short tutorials will be created for each phase of the application to support the learning needs of our users. In the following sections, the specific ways in which our design decisions meet the needs of our intended users will be discussed. In order to develop the best design for our tutorial, we will engage in both a modified parallel and iterative design.
Design Decisions
Animation
Having researched a number of different tutorial formats, we have decided to proceed with a stop-action animated tutorial using a combination of voice-overs/sound and text (is this still stop action??). The rationale for creating an animated tutorial is in part based on the fact that at this time we do not have a functional product with which to record a video. In addition, research has demonstrated that animations can be an effective way to deliver instruction (Lowe, 2004, paragraph 2) and a short animated video lends itself well to being displayed on either computers or handheld devices, at the point of need.As noted by Lowe (2004), animations appear to “fulfill an ‘affective’ function, that is, to attract attention, engage the learner, and sustain motivation” (Lowe, 2004, paragraph 3). Other advocates of animation believe it is beneficial for information processing by making difficult content easier to understand and by depicting dynamics explicitly (Lowe, 2004). Benefits of animation have also been claimed to include the reduction of extraneous processing because “animation requires less effort to create mental pictorial presentations, and computer control requires less effort to make choices during learning” (Mayer, Hegarty, Mayer, & Campbell, 2005, p. 257). Proponents of animation also argue that processing animations places a lower cognitive load on learners as learners do not have to “engage in cognitive processing” to animate the graphics as the computer does it for them (Mayer, et al., 2005)
Nevertheless, in spite of the oft cited educational benefits of animation, research has failed to demonstrate conclusively that the use of animation is more effective than the use of equivalent static graphics (Ayres, Kalyuga, Marcus, & Sweller, 2005; Ayres & Paas, 2007; Mayer, et al., 2005). Ayres et al. (2005) identify two “critical characteristics” that may serve to explain the apparent lack of effectiveness of animations: 1) information is transitory, and 2) animations consist of a series of successive elements – with static graphics more time can be made available to transfer the information. Considering these limitations, Ayres et al. (2005) suggest a number of conditions under which animations may serve to be effective. For example, employing strategies that serve to lower extraneous cognitive load, such as ensuring users have sufficient prior knowledge, thus reducing demands on working memory caused by the transitory nature of animations. Another suggestion is ‘tracing’, which entails leaving information on the screen for a longer period of time and also serves to counteract the transitory nature. A final suggestion that has applicability to our product is building in learner control such that learners are able to control the pace by pausing, reviewing, or fast forwarding the tutorial, again reducing working memory loads.
Given the inconclusive evidence regarding the efficacy of animations as compared to graphical/textual explanations in learning applications, we will develop parallel designs to determine which format best meets the needs of our learners for our particular product: an animated format with combinations of voice/text, or a static graphical/textual format. In order to create an effective animation, we will employ the suggestions offered by Ayres et al. (2005) and will also strive to construct the animation in such a way as to tap the positive features of static illustrations. Factors such as user control of the pace and guiding users to attend to key steps in the process (Mayer, et al., 2005) will be employed.
According to Lowe (2004), two problems may be associated with dynamic explanations -- that of overwhelming users, and that of underwhelming users.Users can be overwhelmed and unable to keep pace with the delivery if animations present complex information very rapidly. Conversely, users can be underwhelmed if animations are insufficiently engaging and ineffective in gaining and sustaining user attention and stimulating relevant cognitive processes for learning (Lowe, 2004). The intent of our tutorial then is to neither overwhelm nor underwhelm our users, but to achieve what Norman (2011) identifies as an appropriate level of complexity. COMMENTS/SUGGESTIONS/CHANGES? HAVE AT 'ER! :-)
Voice and Text
Research on text/voice/combination:- -( Vanita).To promote effective learning, we will include narration in our tutorials. As noted by Bishop & Cates (2001), "sounds may gain and focus learner attention, reduce distracting stimuli, and make learning more engaging" (p. 5). Sounds may also "help learners condense, elaborate on, and organize details, highlighting interconnections among new pieces of information and making connections to preexisting knowledge" (Bishop & Cates, 2001, p. 5?).
We also considered including a combination of voice-overs/sound and text. Research on the use of voice or text or combined voice and text has revealed some interesting advantages and disadvantages. Chalfonte et al. (1991) suggest "voice can be more `expressive' than text, placing less cognitive demand on the communicator/user and allowing more attention to be devoted to the content of the message" (p. ??). (I'm not certain the previous sentence fits - is this talking about the person who is doing the narration - i.e. the communicator? shouldn't we be referring to the 'user'?) Another advantage of using speech in our interface is its universality; almost everyone understands spoken language as opposed to the varied reading abilities. However, one notable disadvantage is that voice delivers information at a slower rate than text, which can be scanned or reviewed. As Nielsen (1995) points out, “a special consideration for video (and spoken audio) is that any narration may lead to difficulty for international users as well as for users with a hearing disability.” He adds, “spoken words are sometimes harder to understand, especially if the speaker is sloppy, has a dialect, speaks over a distracting soundtrack, or simply speaks very fast … The classic solution to these problems is to use subtitles but subtitles require special attention on the web."
In addition, further research on the combination of text and speech suggested a dual modality output presentation, rather than a single modality, to improve user comprehension and retention (Schwartz, 2003). “In contrast to print and audio comparisons, which generally reveal no advantage for dual over single presentations, studies show that adding pictures to print or audio generally increases learning" (Nugent, 1992, p. 164). Another study by Sipior and Garruty (1992) found that presentations with a mix of audio and visual components improved receptive attributes such as perception, attention, comprehension, and retention. “Flexibility is extremely important to system use since different users may require different degrees of support” (Sipior & Garruty, p. 519).
Color and Graphics
“If we want people to adopt a new behaviour, it is therefore important that instructions are not only semantically clear and easy to follow, but also visually easy to read – or else the behaviour may seem unduly demanding” (Song, H. & Schwarz, N., 2008). The use of visuals should facilitate learning rather than distract from it hence visual clarity is a guiding principle in our tutorial design. Our goal is to provide an effortless experience through minimizing the use of, and simplifying, both visuals and text so that our choices aid in the memory process whilst adding a level of enjoyment.“Communicators and educators … well advised to present information in a form that facilitates easy processing: if it’s easy to read, it seems easy to do, pretty, good, and true “ (Song, H. & Schwarz, N., 2008). In general, people prefer familiar images to highly unusual examples, as they are easier to process. We have, therefore, used similar human-like figures throughout in the design of the Virti-Cue product, in testing by users, and in the current development of tutorial models. This consistency will help reduce distraction from the main learning goals and aid with comprehension. (Malamed, C., 2011)
We chose to use simplified and iconic graphics in order to reduce cognitive load, as in, less mental energy will be spent on processing the visuals and more toward acting on recognition of their inherent meaning. As Soloman states, “from an instructional perspective, information contained in instructional material must first be processed by working memory….Cognitive load theory is concerned with techniques for reducing working memory load in order to facilitate the changes in long term memory.” (http://tip.psychology.org/sweller.html)
In addition, our chosen graphics and icons possess elements that will ease transfer, or enable deciphering, across various cultures and languages. We have consciously paid attention to choosing the “right metaphors” to simplify the use of the tutorial (http://www.iconfinder.com/blog) and although we have attempted to keep all elements in the tutorial looking as if they belong together, we have added some visual variety as our research also supports the idea of sometimes grabbing p[eople’s attention. (Skaalid, 1999)
Careful consideration has gone into the color selections made in our tutorial. In part, we wanted the tutorial to accurately reflect the colors in the actual application. Bearing in mind that our product is intended to assist children with Asperger’s Syndrome learn appropriate social behaviors, we wanted to ensure that the colors chosen would facilitate learning and not serve as a distraction. In all probability, it will be the parents or caregivers of these children who utilize the tutorials. Nevertheless, we understand that the children will often be close by and the utilization of distracting colors could serve as an obstacle to uninterrupted viewing.
With these factors in mind, we limited the number of colors in the tutorial and used the color red (circle cursor with highlighted centre to indicate 'clicking') to focus user attention on relevant cues (Skaalid, 1999). The color scheme is consistent throughout (Skaalid), with the same colors used for buttons and backgrounds. We chose the black background to simulate the background of handheld devices on which the application will be utilized, such as on iphones.
Segment Length
One of our objectives in developing a video tutorial for Virti-Cue is to create a learning experience that is meaningful and allows for ease of use. To this end, our first tutorial video stands as an episode in relation to a larger body of work. The episodic nature of these videos raises questions of episode length. To effectively sustain attention and produce intended results, we must gain a better understanding of how memory works. Mayes & Roberts (2001) state that "only a tiny fraction of experienced episodes are put into long-term memory storage and, even with those that are, only a small proportion of the experienced episode is later retrievable" (p. 1398). They stress the importance of providing visual information to users, as “in episodes experienced by humans, visual information is usually most salient" (Mayes & Roberts, p. 1396).The use of visuals is an important aspect of our tutorial design, however, the question of the optimal length of each episode remains unanswered. Nielsen (2005) argues that "the main guideline for producing website video is to keep it short. Typically, Web videos should be less than a minute long." Google Sketchup (http://sketchup.google.com/training/videos/new_to_gsu.html) offers a series of instructional videos varying between one and eight minutes in length. Similarly, Adobe (http://tv.adobe.com/show/learn-acrobat-9/) provides video tutorial support for their product lines with lengths akin to Sketchup. These examples have us questioning whether the likes of Google and Adobe have got it wrong or whether there are additional factors contributing to the success of a video tutorial.
Czerwinski & Horvitz (2002) describe how “new instruction updating depends on forgetting old instructions” and “a user will operate optimally if she allows those instructions to slowly decay from memory” (p. 232). If we provide too much information at once, we will not allow Virti-Cue users enough time to “let a previous task item fade from memory” (Czerwinski & Horvitz, p. 233). Given these constraints on memory, we question whether the effectiveness of a tutorial is as much about length as it is about the amount of information required to perform a task. As we develop these video-based resources, we consider that “a user cannot attend to a future behaviour if the previous task is still requiring attentional resources in short-term memory” (Czerwinski & Horvitz, p. 233). Our goal, therefore, is to create video tutorials attending to both brevity and the amount and manner of information presented in each episode.
Assessment of Learning
How will we determine if our learning application has met the needs of our learners? In order to assess the efficacy of ...References
Ayres, P., Kalyuga, S., Marcus, N., & Sweller, J. (2005). The conditions under which instructional animations may be effective. Paper presented at an International Workshop and Mini-conference, Open University of the Netherlands: Heerlen, The Netherlands. Retrieved from www.ou.nl/Docs/Expertise/OTEC/Nieuws/icleps%20conferentie/Ayres.doc
Ayres, P., & Paas, F. (2007). Making instructional animations more effective: A cognitive load approach. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 21, 695-700. doi: 10.1002/acp.1343
Bishop, M. J., & Cates, W. (2001). Theoretical foundations for sound's use in multimedia instruction to enhance learning. Educational Technology Research and Development, 49(3), 5-22.
Chalfonte, B. L., Fish, R. S., & Kraut, R. E. (1991). Expressive richness: A comparison of speech and text as media for revision. In Proceedings of CHI '92, 21-26. ACM.
Czerwinski, M., & Horvitz, E. (2002). An investigation of memory for daily computing events. In Xristine Faulkner, Janet Finlay, & Françoise Détienne (Eds.). People and computers XVI – memorable yet invisible: Proceedings of HCI 2002 (pp. 229-245). London, ENG: Springer-Verlag.
Lowe, R.K. (2004). Animation and learning: Value for money? In R. Atkinson, C. McBeath, D. Jonas-Dwyer & R. Phillips (Eds), Beyond the comfort zone: Proceedings of the 21st ASCILITE Conference (pp. 558-561). Perth, 5-8 December. http://www.ascilite.org.au/conferences/perth04/procs/lowe-r.html
Mayer, R., Hegarty, M., Mayer, S., & Campbell, J. (2005). When static media promote active learning: Annotated illustrations versus narrated animations in multimedia instruction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 11(4), 256-265. Retrieved from http://rstb.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/356/1413/1395.full.pdf+html
Mayes, A. R., & Roberts, N. (2001). Theories of episodic memory. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of Bilogical Sciences, 356, 1395-1408. doi 10.1098/rstb.2001.0941
Nielsen, J. (1995). Guidelines for multimedia. Jakob Nielsen's alertbox for December 1995. Retrieved from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/9512.html
Nielsen, J. (2005). Talking-head video is boring online. Jakob Nielsen’s alertbox, December 5, 2005. Retrieved from http://www.useit.com/alertbox/video.html
Norman, D. (2011). Living with complexity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Nugent, G. (1982). Pictures audio and print: Symbolic representation and effect on learning. Educational Comm. Tech. J. 30, 3, 163-174.
Schwartz, N. (2003). The Impact of Animation and Sound Effects on Attention and Memory Processes. Conference Papers -- International Communication Association, 1-5. doi:ica_proceeding_12242.PDF
Sipior, J.C.& Garrity, E.J., (1992). Merging expert systems with multimedia technology’ Database (Winter) 45-49.
Skaalid, B. (1999). Web design for instruction: Color. Retrieved from http://www.usask.ca/education/coursework/skaalid/page/scrndsgn/color.htm